Continuum Of Care Outline Essay

I. Introduction II. Stakeholders A. The â€Å"description of the roles of various stakeholders in the health care industry who are involved in the continuum of care† (University of Phoenix, 2015). 1. Who the patients are. 2. Who the employees are. 3. Who the payers are. 4. Who the providers are. B. â€Å"How the component contributes to or detracts from the overall management of health care resources† (University of Phoenix, 2015). 1. Is this a positive or negative affect? III. Services provided and employees’ role(s). A. â€Å"Discuss the services provided and how these services fit into the continuum of care† (University of Phoenix, 2015). 1. What services are provided? 2. How do these services fit into the continuum of care? 3. â€Å"The role of transitioning patients from one level of care to another in the health care continuum† (University of Phoenix, 2015). See more: 5 paragraph essay format B. â€Å"Description of the health care delivery component’s role in providing services† (University of Phoenix, 2015). 1. Who provides these services? 2. How the services are delivered. IV. Current and Future of Home Health Care A. What are the current trends and how they are changing? B. What the potential trends are. 1. How these potential trends will change delivery components and services in the future. 2. Accommodating for the future trends. V. The Characteristics of Integrated Delivery System (IDS) A. Health Care organizations. B. Community health. VI. Conclusion References University of Phoenix. (2015). Continuum of Care Presentation. Retrieved from University of Phoenix, HCS/235-Health Care Delivery in the U.S. website.

Betty Neuman

The theorist I selected is Betty Neuman. The theory’s historical background is extensive and has evolved over the years. According to www. nursingtheories. org it states â€Å"Neumann developed her Systems Model Theory in 1972 with the book entitled The Neuman Systems Model: Application to Nursing Education and Practice which included the Nursing process format & care plans included. In 1989 the book The Neuman Systems Model, 2nd ed. Created environment added to expand concept of environment. Spiritual variable added to diagram as fifth variable. The year 1995 brought about another book entitled The Neuman Systems Model, 3rd ed.Chapters on culture, international use of the Model, applications to administration and construction of conceptual-theoretical-structures for research added. In 2002 The Neuman Systems Model, 4th ed. Co-edited by Drs. Betty Neuman and Jacqueline Fawcett. Guidelines for clinical practice, model-based research, education and administration, plus appropri ate tools highlight this edition. The year 2010 The Neuman Systems Model, 5th ed. Co-edited by Drs. Betty Neuman and Jacqueline Fawcett. Chapters include an expansion of the client system as an individual, family, group and community.Highlights include advances in thinking about the created environment, reconstitution, and critical thinking within the context of the NSM. Middle-range theory development and integrative theorizing conclude the edition† (2013). A Description of key points of the theory are described on the website www. nursingtheories. org â€Å"The Systems model viewed the client as an open system consisting of a basic structure or central core of energy resources which represent concentric circles. Each concentric circle or layer is made up of the five variable areas which are considered and occur simultaneously in each client concentric circles.These are: Physiological – refers of bodily structure and function. Psychological – refers to mental p rocesses, functioning and emotions. Sociocultural – refers to relationships; and social/cultural functions and activities. Spiritual – refers to the influence of spiritual beliefs. Developmental – refers to life’s developmental processes† (2013) There are two major concepts regarded in the model. The first is stress reaction and systematic feedback loops. As it states on the website www. currentnursing. org â€Å"Client reacts to stress with lines of defense and esistance.Continuous feedback loops fine-tune the lines of defense and resistance so as to achieve maximal level of stability. The client is in continuous and dynamic interaction with the environment. The exchanges between the environment and the client are reciprocal (each one is influenced by the other). The goal is to achieve optimal system stability and balance. Prevention is the main nursing intervention to achieve this balance. Primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention activities ar e used to attain, retain, and maintain system balance† (2013).

Why People Commit a Crime?

It was often asked and researched throughout the years of why people commit a crime. As the opposed question came about, theorist came out with their theories of why people commit a crime. I believe people commit crime because they are learning it from the influences in their life and because the person or persons is a very important aspect in their lives it leads to the process of why people commit a crime. This connects to Sutherland's theory of Differential Association, but while it does connect to Sutherland's theory this paper will focus on the social learning theory that Aker mentions and has further research of the subject of crime. Micro-Level Learning theory has been advanced by many theorist over the years such as the theorist Sutherland. If I were to test the theory of social learning, specifically micro-level learning theory I would examine the relationships with peers preferably intimate relationships with friends and family. Only then when viewing the intimate relationships, I would see the person learn the techniques of committing crime and what's considered in the text â€Å"definitions†. When mentioning â€Å"definitions† it's what is favorable and unfavorable toward violation of the law. Now, for the theory to be accurate I have to find things that support or amongst the search if it undermines the theory at hand. The theory had one major concern that undermines the accuracy of the theory. The theory does not give a good description of the favorable and unfavorable to crime. It was because that the description of the theory was first described by Sutherland than a few others, until it lead to Akers. There has been many theorists who tried to define the definitions more precisely. It was treated as different theories, but the main one I want to focus on is the social learning theory. Since there has been many theorist who focused for example, control theory it became difficult to find the theory that is more acceptable. Another concern that was mentioned was that the theory failed to describe the process of how crime is learned. Akers did however, did draw from psychology to get a better aspect of the behavior and the social learning process. The process comes in three steps as said by Akers. First, an individual learn beliefs that define crime as desirable or justifiable. He goes more in depth saying these beliefs lead to crime. The second process is that people engage in crime because are reinforced into that situation, meaning it could be peer pressure (a negative reinforcement) or the individual could receive a reward for participating in the crime. The last process is that people imitate the criminal behavior of others, which is the intimate relationship the individual has with them. The process of learning crime as shown through most studies which shows that associating with family and/or friends that exhibit criminal behavior, comes out more often throughout most of the studies. This was taken as a strong evidence to support the social learning theory, however, even though it had the correlation numerous researchers argued against it. The researchers argued that the correlation doesn't mean that the association with criminal family or friends cause criminal behavior in the individual. Even saying that as well there has been strong support to back up the social learning theory. It is said that the origin of the support stems from research solely based off of experiments being conducted such as surveys or field work studies. From all the information that has been researched and conducted has shown the support of the theory and also the facts that undermine the theory. If I were to make the theory more accurate I would say that an individual associating themselves with a delinquent family member influences the individual to commit or take part in criminal activities. This combined theory now becomes more accurate to the research that has been conducted by the theorists. The theory itself needs a lot more research that needs to be conducted, but with the improved version of the theory will lead to a more stronger support of the social learning theory.

Evaluate how far the provisions of the Landlord and Tenants Essay

Evaluate how far the provisions of the Landlord and Tenants (Covenants) Act 1995 can be said to benefit tenants to the detriment of landlords - Essay Example In this case the landlord couldn’t insist his legal right to charge a full rent strictly due to the war situation and its negative effect on occupancy in his flats. In United Kingdom, several landlord and tenants acts have been enacted to provide right direction and legal instrument for solving the problems related to landlord and tenant matters1. The need for reforming landlord and tenant act was also felt in countries like Ireland and accordingly law reform commission was established in the year 1975 (The law reform commission, 2003). In July 2001, this law reform commission established landlord and tenant project aiming at reforming the landlord and tenant law. landlord and tenant acts. For example, landlord and tenant acts were introduced in 1709, 1730, 1851, 1927, 1954, 1985, 1987 and 1988. The objective of all these acts is to ensure the genuine interests of both the landlords and tenants according to the agreement made between them. However, the specific aim of these acts is to reduce the exploitation of tenants by landlords. Over a period of time, the necessity for reforming the laws related to landlord and tenants is felt and accordingly the Landlord and Tenant (Covenants) Act 1995 was enacted. The contribution of Landlord and Tenant (Covenants) Act 1995 is highly significant in reducing the problems faced by the tenants from the landlords (Office of Public Service Information, 1995). With the inclusion of several provisions under the Landlord and Tenant (Covenants) Act 1995, the government of United Kingdom ensured the interests and rights of the tenants and it legally protects their rights in sharing the lease of the property and landlords cannot force them to vacate whenever they wish to do so. The critical analysis of the provisions of the said act is essential so that the benefits accrued upon by the tenants can be assessed. Let us discuss one by one. The Landlord and Tenant (Covenants)

Training Policy Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Training Policy - Assignment Example It needs to be mentioned in this regard that the training programs or policies not only concentrate on individual development but also on the facet of organizational development which is imperative to be gauged together with individual development (Rae, L., â€Å"Effective Planning in Training and Development†). Training relates to the coaching or knowledge enhancement conducts that are carried out for the principal rationale of aiding the members of a particular organization to obtain and to implement the learning proficiencies, aptitudes and approach required by that organization in order to obtain and practice the same. To put it differently, it can be stated that training is considered to be the conduct of augmenting the understanding and competency with regard to the employees in the field of their respective tasks. The environment of business has been observed to undergo through a constant alteration which is not only intensifying the degree of competition but is also ch allenging the sustained existence. This is making it necessary for the organizations to adapt to the altering scenario in order to ensure its development as well as existence. Developing fresh training policies for the organizations are considered to be an effective way for them in dealing with the alterations and modifications made with regard to the business operations. Employees are considered to be vital components, who are regarded as a fundamental part for leading the organizations towards failure or accomplishments (Rae, L., â€Å"Effective Planning in Training and Development†). Every individual organization is believed to entail the engagement of competently trained as well as experienced individuals for the reason of carrying out their respective responsibilities that form a part of the regular business operations with regard to the organization. The altering business environment is making it necessary for the employees of different organizations operating in divers e sectors to cope up with the changing requirements. Therefore, training is measured to be the aspect that is known to facilitate the growth of such capable employees by enhancing and honing their respective proficiencies. In this present society that is supposed to be changing speedily, the aspect of formulating training policies is not just observed to be a conduct that is wanted but the organizations also need to assign resources in an attempt to ensure the existence of a practical and experienced workforce (Rae, L., â€Å"Effective Planning in Training and Development†). Training policies are believed to provide significant advantages that are reaped in the long run by a definite organization. The notion related to the formulation of training policies is also measured to ascertain along with enhancing the returns gained in terms of the investment made by that organization. Therefore, the factor of providing training or structuring training policies helps the organizations to a great extent in keeping hold of the most excellent resources with the purpose of garnering the best from them (Rae, L., â€Å"Effective Planning in Training and Development†). Overview of the Company The Gulf Centre for Aviation Studies (GCAS) is a company which is located in Abu Dhabi and it is identified as a centre that aims at offering excellent training

Globalization & the World's Poor Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Globalization & the World's Poor - Essay Example Developments in technology and policies over the past few decades have acted to be the catalyst in cross border trade and investment. The current wave of globalization opened up the domestic economies internationally. In the periods after the Second World War the governments of most countries adopted the free economic systems to be the driver of the economy. The free economic regime increased the potential of the states and created new opportunities for trade and investment. With the aim to promote trade and development the government negotiated in reducing the barriers of trade while the new corporations exploited the new opportunities in foreign market by moving into agreements. The economic life was transformed with advances in the field of technology. The definition of globalization has remained controversial. The proponents of globalization argue that the process will enable the poor countries to improve the standards of living while the critics argue that globalization only ben efitted the large corporations and eliminated local enterprises out of the market scenario. The resistance of globalization has been from all levels and the government are now engaging themselves in regulating the flow of capital and goods that constitute the wave of globalization. ... It was thought globalization will bring about an overall welfare for the society. So the society as a whole was supposed to reap the benefits. But after the years of implementation it was founds that the benefits are getting directed towards the developed countries and the less developed countries are remaining under the shadows of darkness. Some argues that multinational corporations enjoy the power over the economies of the world. But it can be argued that it is not the companies that take the advantages. It is the well developed nations that exploit the poorer counterparts through international networking communities. On a cyclical note it can be said that globalization deters protectionism by opening up the borders which facilitate easy flow of ideas and products. Globalization increases the opportunity for self interests and in this fashion pursues the interests of the first world countries with the expense of the third world countries. Therefore globalization acts to cheat the world’s poor. The financial press and the influential officials of the international authorities assert that the global markets expand the dimensions of the poor while the critics hold the opposite position with equal intensity. In the period between 1980 to 2000 the percentage in trade in goods as well as services in China increased from 23% to 46% of GDP. In the case of India, The percentage ranged from 19 to 30% over the same period. The development of the nations created some opportunities for the nations to utilize. But some nations lacked the capability to utilize the situation as there did not have the required political and domestic situation. The idea of free trade rests on the notion that nations should involve themselves in exporting those products in

Marketing in the Information Age for Specialty Record Music Store Research Paper

Marketing in the Information Age for Specialty Record Music Store - Research Paper Example There exists a music store on Queen Street West in Toronto containing theme based CD's, records and DVD's. The collections are based on the cultural interests of the shop owners. The store does not have any online presence. Store enjoys reasonable amount of foot fall. But, due to the unorganized nature of the shop very few people actually buy the collection. As a matter of fact many people fail to locate the desired music collection due to unorganized nature of the shop. Due to the lack of online presence and hence losses customers to larger firms like HMV. The store owner also has 50% ownership of a local bar that specializes in in-house music.Based on the above the background thee study looks to provide a proposed marketing diagnostic plan. The plan includes the used of strategic and marketing concepts like AIDA model and SWOT analysis. The study also focuses on social media and viral marketing conceptsBased on the back ground of the study and the SWOT analysis it can be understood that the shop has entered in to a viscous circle. Customers are visiting the shop; but due to the organized nature of the shop, people are losing interests, People are switching to other firms like HMV through the online medium. Add to that the firm has no online presenceThe first step towards making the digital presence is to have a website. As mentioned earlier having a business without a website is like having a business without face. If the store owner does not have the expertise, then it can be outsourced to any SEO company

The Impact of Technology in Business Dissertation

The Impact of Technology in Business - Dissertation Example 3.0 Literature Review 3.1 Impact of communication advancement on Business Despite the fact that the bigger companies have huge and dedicated information and communication technology departments, today, the technology levels the playing field to accommodate even the smallest companies (McKenney, Copeland and Mason, 1995). The smaller companies have a huge chance of surpassing the bigger companies if the smaller companies can use the ever increasing technology to their advantage (Johnson, 2009). 3.2 Impact of Databases to replace file systems in businesses A lot of technology has been applied in businesses today. For example, Database management systems are being used over the world in businesses. The database management systems replaced the old file systems (Atkinson and Draheim, 2010). This is probably one of the most widely used technology in businesses today. The database management systems are especially used in the accounting departments. Wang, 2014, suggests that businesses are solemnly driven by databases today. The better the database design, the more effective the business. 3.3 Impact of teleconferencing and home working Technology has changed how businesses operate is improvements in communications. With advances in communications, businesses can easily communicate with clients, suppliers and other important stakeholders quite effectively. This has led to increased productivity in the businesses. With teleconferencing for example, people can attend a meeting without necessarily being together in a physical room.

Group protective rights in international law Essay

Group protective rights in international law - Essay Example Explain, giving an example. Group protective rights in international law ensure protection of minorities through minority specific individual rights whereas majority is treated as legal subjects and bearers of group rights. By bringing autonomous minorities and indigenous people to the international human rights convention makes the State to waive their right to interfere with their activities on human rights grounds. For example, the American legal orders deal with violations to the human rights by Indian tribes and how the Canadian legal orders deal with human rights violation by Qubec. India attributes universal laws to all Indian citizens and "personal laws", to specific ethnic groups and Muslim minority. A decision in Federal District Court confirms that Unocal could not be held liable because it did not control the Burmese military's actions. "The 9th Circuit Court of Appeals, California Superior Judge Victoria Chaney reversed an earlier Federal District Court decision and will allow a groundbreaking human rights lawsuit against Unocal to go forward. In the Doe v. Unocal case, 11 Burmese villagers allege that Unocal, a California based oil company, can be held liable for human rights abuses associated with its Yadana gas pipeline project in Burma. The abuses include rape, forced labor, and murder". (http://www.mines and communities.org viewed on 12th May, 2009). 4. If an international tribunal finds that there is no applicable national or international law rule to decide the case before it, what should it do If the interpretation of the national law is vague and ambiguous, the international tribunal will adopt the interpretation which it thinks is in conformity with the law of the State. (Text Book on International law, Martin Dixon, 6th edition, p93-94, 2007, published by http://books.google.co.in/booksid ). 5. Compare customary international law rules with rules from international agreements. International law comprises of rules and rationales which rule the relations and dealings of nations with each other. It is concerned with questions of rights between several nations or nations and the citizens or subjects of other nations. Whereas International agreements make law for the parties of the agreement. They might also contribute to the foundation of customary international law with the intention of adhering generally and are widely accepted. (International law: an overview, http://topics.law.cornell.edu/wex/International_law). 6. Trials of former Khmer Rouge leaders for crimes against humanity in Cambodia from the 1970s are finally starting. What is the nature of the court that is hearing these cases The nature of the court is Genocide Tribunal. This court is backed by United Nations. The trial started at Phnom Penh, Cambodia. It started with the trial of Kaing Guek Eav, known as Duch. The court deals with charges of crimes against humanity, torture premeditated murder and breaches of the Geneva conventions. The Khmer Rouge leaders were accused of killing around 1.75 million people through execution, starvation or overwork during 1975-79. Duch faces charges of killing 10000

Electronic frontier Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Electronic frontier - Assignment Example The giants who own the market in the digital world try to kill any competition that they get but this can no longer be done as I can simply challenge any of the plea with the use of the EFF. With the help of the organization I can make sure that my circle of privacy is not violated by the state authorities. I can make a fine line when I want to be anonymous on the internet and express my views accordingly. With the help of EFF I believe that I can challenge anyone who finds my anonymity illegal or tries to find my identity and threaten me in any case. If I find out that anyone is trespassing the line of my privacy I can always approach the organization and inform my government regarding the necessary issues so as to avoid any legal repercussions. I believe that I can protect my privacy to the fullest of extent if given the knowledge provided by the organization. The newest technology allows one to detect when anyone is trying malinger against you or is trying to impose something that I may not have even done. My information and logs should not be accessed by any given company unless they have issues of national security against

Crafted Beer vs Mass Produced Beer Essay Example for Free

Crafted Beer vs Mass Produced Beer Essay According to (http://www. brewersassociation. org/pages/business-tools/craft-brewing-statistics/craft-brewer-defined) a craft brewer is â€Å"small, independent and traditional†. They have to produce less than six million barrels to be considered a craft brewery. Also from a financial point there is a difference to a mass producing beer brewery, an alcoholic industry can only have a maximum of 25% of the brewery. If they own more than this they are considered mass producing brewery because the alcoholic industry is considered to own the craft brewery. Furthermore it has to have â€Å"at least 50% of its volume in either all malt beers or in beers which use adjuncts to enhance rather than lighten flavor† (http://www. brewersassociation. org/pages/business-tools/craft-brewing-statistics/craft-brewer-defined). Although many people think that there is only â€Å"one† beer, most of them never tried crafted beer because they would notice immediately differences in taste compared to mass produced beer. The history of crafted beer and mass produced beer is pretty different, as you can imagine beer exists a long time and the way of producing in industries is not very old. The first crafted beers were made in Egypt over 4,000 years ago. There are no records how the Egypt people came up with the idea, but according to (www. ancientegyptonline. co. uk/beer. html) Osiris an Egyptian god taught the people how the brew beer, it was mostly a female activity and the main ingredient in was â€Å"bread made from a rich yeasty dough possibly including malt†, then it was â€Å"baked and crumbled through a sieve with water† and the last part was adding flavor and letting it stay in order to ferment. On the other hand the first mass produced beer was brewed about 3,800 years later in 1840 in the Czech Republic when the creator Pilsner Urquell decided to use the new technologies brought by the industrialization to make beer available for every person. This started one of the biggest markets nowadays. The way of producing the beers is not really different in the sense of mechanism, because both types of beers using assembly lines in order to produce a large output. Still the factories differ from another in some points; the production of crafted beer is kept â€Å"small† and maintains focus on the quality. These factories are producing a variety of beers and their motto is quality over quantity. The factories of mass produced beer are way bigger compared to the craft breweries and they prefer rather quantity for a greater mass of people than quality. You can’t say that their beer is bad but it doesn’t have the same level as crafted beer. In addition the primary ingredients of the beer are the same: water, malted barley and hops, it is just the normal way to produce beer nowadays. What makes the difference in these two types is the flavor of the beer, while mass produced beer tastes pretty similar if you compare different brands this is definitely not the case with crafted beer. Each craft brewery tries to create its own, unique beer by adding non-traditional beer ingredients. The last difference in the way of producing is that in craft beers are mostly no adjuncts and not all of them are fermented like it is the case with mass produced beer. (http://www. topofthehopsbeerfest.com/biloxi/the-top-ten-reasons-why-you-should-drink-craft-beerbiloxi. php) Why are there so many people attracted to crafted beer? In order to answer this you have to look at the factories which produce the beers because they have a whole different attitude towards their customers. The biggest difference in their attitude shows in their connection to the customers, while mass producing breweries have no connection at all to their customers, the crafted breweries are actually very close to them. Most of them ask their customers for feedback in order to make a better beer and solve their current problems. Furthermore the beer producing factories are not just a little bit different. One of the most famous mass producing beer factory is Anheuser-Busch Inc (Bud Light), which has factories all over America and doesn’t only produce beer, it is also specialized in energy drink, malt beverages and non-alcoholic drinks. The craft breweries on the other hand are only specialized in beers, a famous one is the Harpoon Brewery which is located in Boston. (http://www. cnbc. com/id/39233398/page/2) , (http://www. nomorefreebeer. com/index. php/the-facts/anheuser-beer-list/) There are two main aspects why people prefer crafted beer over mass produced beer, and quality is one of those aspects. The main reason why they differ so much is that the purpose of the factories producing the beer is different.

Surveillance and the State Essay Example for Free

Surveillance and the State Essay Introduction The UK is increasingly sleep walking into a surveillance society[1] to the extent that it has become an inescapable part of life.[2] Every time we make a telephone call, send an email, browse the internet, or even walk down our local high street, our actions may be monitored and recorded.[3] The increasing prevalence of surveillance has perhaps led to the state being viewed by its citizens as the Big Brother of Orwellian fame. This essay intends to focus on the impact of government surveillance and data collection has upon the privacy of citizens and, as a consequence, their relationship with the state. To effectively answer this question there needs to be an examination of the various forms of surveillance and data collection and whether they are constitutionally proper or improper, intrusive or legal, and whether there should be limitations to the quantity of information collated. The advancement of technology in the 21st century has enhanced the quantity and integrity of surveillance information which begs the question are we as a nation ‘too stupid’ to realise how intrusive the UK’s surveillance regime is? Is a citizen’s liberty and privacy at stake with the effects of surveillance from both public and private sector? Furthermore is the legislation governing this issue sufficient in its application? All these matters will be addressed. However, as there are so many forms of surveillance, there will be a particular emphasis on mass surveillance and the use of CCTV and databases. The need for a widespread belief in the importance of individual freedom and executive accountability is undoubtedly a prerequisite to the success of a constitutional democracy. Understanding Surveillance and its Components. The term ‘surveillance’ can be briefly defined as ‘watching over’ which indicates monitoring the behaviour of persons, objects, or systems.[4] There are two broad types of surveillance, mass surveillance and targeted surveillance. Mass Surveillance is not targeted on any particular individual and gathers information for future use, further, it has the potential to erode privacy. Whereas targeted is directed at particular individuals. It can be carried out under a covert or overt means If it is carried out under a covert operation, it is important to note, that the citizen is unaware of the use of targeted surveillance, so therefore the relationship with the state is unaffected by the use of this type. However if in the event where there was unlawful targeted surveillance and the individual was to become aware, the consequences can be detrimental to the relationship between the citizen and the state. It is important to note that alongside the state there are non state agencies and organizations which also occupy an increasingly significant component of surveillance systems today. The case of Patton v Poole Borough council where, only after the surveillance had been completed by the council on a family, were they made aware of this. The council believed they were acting in accordance with RIPA, and that ‘it was necessary for the prevention and detection of crime and it was proportionate for determining the genuineness of information supplied by Ms Patton.’ [5] The tribunal in this instance found the council was in breach of RIPA and did not act in accordance with Article 8. In coming to this conclusion the court had to determine the issue of whether the actions carried out by the council was necessary for the prevention or detection of crime and was it proportionate to what sought to be achieved. The legislation governing Surveillance and the protection of citizens is outlined in the Data Protection Act 1998, Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, the Freedom of Information Act 2000 and the 1995 European Data Protection Directive 95/46/EC. The Data Protection Act governs the protection of personal data; however this act does not mention privacy of the individual. Privacy The need for privacy is fundamental in a high surveillance society such as the UK. Privacy Internationals survey in 2007 which covered 47 countries indicated there had been in an increase in surveillance in the past year to the detriment of privacy safeguards. 8 of these 47 countries were rated as being ‘endemic surveillance societies’ which included the UK. [6] The need to protect and facilitate the development of privacy of the citizen in order to maintain healthy functioning of society is a necessity with the advancement of technology. Privacy is recognised as a fundamental right by various legal instruments,[7] although Article 8(2) of the European Convention on Human Rights provides limitations.[8] However in English law it is a known fact that there is no right to privacy, it has been suggested that privacy is of such importance to humanity that in the past it needed little formal protection.[9] The high profile case of Kaye v Robertson[10] illustrated the need for the right to privacy in the UK, where photographs of Gorden Kaye were published as he lay suffering from injuries in a car crash. Governments The government’s evidence does not itself explain how the collection of information helps in the pursuit of their objectives, or whether existing processing practices are proportionate to those objectives.[11] The need for this may result in a conflict between the interests of the citizen and the aims of the state. Concerns were also raised about whether government agencies and other public bodies understood how the principles of necessity and proportionality operate in the context of privacy and limitations set out in article 8(2). In order to justify a an interference with article 8’s stipulations, the state must be able to show that it is acting lawfully and for a legitimate aim and the interference is both necessary and proportionate [12] (Hugh Tomlinson p 440) CCTV and how it relates to citizens A Home Office Study concluded that ‘the CCTV schemes that have been assessed had little overall effect on crime levels.’[13] Critics further argue that mass intrusion into peoples movements may not be proportionate and a breach of their rights to privacy under the Human Rights Act.[14] On the roads, camera based restrictions of speed has increased from 300,000 in 1996 to over 2 million in 2004 where an estimated  £113 million in fines have been generated per annum.[15] These statistics have not been welcomed by citizens and have received negative press on the issue. However the overall increase in CCTV on the roads has no doubt contributed to a reduction in deaths and injuries. The state acknowledges how CCTV is valuable in preventing and detecting crime and the overall safety of society. Citizens can be reassured that they can go about their daily business with confidence, it gives members of the business community added security and sends a clear message to those engaged in crime or anti social behaviour that they will be caught and will be prosecuted.[16] Further councillor Hazel Harding acknowledges how CCTV is popular with law abiding members who see it as a preventative and feel much safer [17] agreeing with many members of society who believe, if ‘you have nothing to fear if you have nothing to hide.’ However the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) recognised the contribution of CCTV images is not recorded in a systematic manner.[18] For example, the increased use of Automatic Number Plate Recognition, where cameras can read number plates and then check them against police databases to see if the cars are wanted for any reason, such as road tax, insurance and MOT. However this is not the only purpose of these cameras, every road userâ€℠¢s journeys are stored on a PSNI database for a minimum of two years regardless of the innocence of the subjects. There are about 10 billion innocent people movements stored on the UK database to date. 15 million innocent people’s details are logged and stored everyday.[19] The use of sophisticated data mining software such as ‘Northgate BOF 2.3, Advanced Data Miner’ is used by all police forces in the UK, which allows every journey a person makes to be tracked, traced, mapped and spied upon for the previous two years. Furthermore this is done without individuals consent. Furthermore to date, there has been no parliamentary debate nor legislation passed regulating its use. The system has no safeguards or independent scrutiny in place. The view that ‘there is not and never can be justification for harvesting and storing data information from innocent law abiding citizens by a government without the explicit permission of the individual.’ On the other hand ANPR can be seen as an internationally recognised tool that can significantly reduce volume crime, provided the police use their ANPR system in a lawful, ethical and accountable manner; for the purpose of preventing and detecting terrorism, serious crime, volume crime and road traffic offences.[20] The question arises are the benefits of this outweighing the costs. Such technology enhances the notion that we are living in a surveillance society, others might argue that anything seen as aiding the police to catch murderers and combat crime is necessary. The information Commissioners Office, which advices organisations on the use of CCTV, says cameras must be reasonable and proportionate to maintain public trust and must not breach the Data Protection Act.[21] The Data Protection Act 1998 states that it should be clear from the outset that the purpose of the CCTV recording is to be stipulated and any subsequent deviation from that purpose constitutes a breach of the legislation. This can be applied to any form of information collation where it should only be used for the purpose it was originally intended. Databases ‘There is a need to gather and access personal information to: support the delivery of personalised and better public services; fight crime and protect security; reduce the burden on business and the citizen, and tackle social exclusion through early intervention.’[22] This quotation reflects on the acceptable intention of surveillance and is perceived as an indispensable tool in the day to day operation of social systems. Whereas once it was fairly safe to assume that personal records kept for purposes such as health, policing, social insurance, banking and driver licensing would be stored in relatively watertight containers, the computerization of these records means that they are readily amenable to different forms of integration. Given the immense value placed on personal data, both for commercial exploitation and for risk management, huge pressure is placed on these containers to yield their secrets in shareable ways..[23] Surveillance in this context means focused attention to personal details aimed at exerting an influence over or managing the objects of data or data subjects as they are sometimes called. [24] It can be considered an aiding instrument to organise. Under the Data Protection Act, bodies that are collecting and collating data, be it health records, revenue information or even a school recording pupil information, are legally required to pay an annual fee of  £35 to register with the Information Commissioner that they are collecting and storing such information. There is a two tier structure based on the organisation’s size and turnover, notification fee’s of  £500 applies to data controllers with a turnover of over  £25.9 million or employs over 250 members of staff.[25] What is of concern is who monitors how this information is being used and how secure it is, or to put it another way, who watches the watchers? These questions concern the accountability of data collection. It is only when there is a breach of security that there is awareness that not all bodies are compliant with the Commissioner’s requirements. These breaches tend to become of real public concern when they come to the attention of the media, affecting public relations with the governing bodies to the level of mistrust. For instance in December 2007, it was revealed that a computer hard drive with the details of 3,000,000 UK learner drivers had gone missing in the USA and that the details of 7,500 vehicles and their owner had been lost by the Driver and Vehicle Agency in Northern Ireland. Also in DATE the junior officers of HMRC lost personal details of all families in the UK with a child under 16. The corroborative of data collection this is in the combating of fraud. This can be considered as a law enforcement activity which uses data collection. Statistics have indicated that the use of this form of surveillance to combat fraud can be considered proportionate to combating its aims as success in respect of NHS savings of  £189 million in 2005, the National fraud Initiative savings of  £111 million in 2005-06, and  £10 million saved in respect of cheque and plastic card fraud.[26] Where revenue databases are concerned it is not unreasonable to assume that every individual is treated as a suspect. Innocent people are investigated. Here the question arises again, is the invasion of an individual’s privacy necessary in order to prevent fraudulent claims? Conclusion In conclusion, the advances in technology in this field have permeated our society resulting in the citizen subconsciously accepting surveillance as part of every day life. Surveillance data can be very powerful and can enable consumers to perform a wide range of functions, which can be perceived as part of the issue – how wide should that use deviate from the initial intention before it can be deemed explorative and ultimately exploitive. Among these functions include assessing banking information, health records, constructing consumer profiles in the name of facilitating efficient services, the topical issue of mobile phone calls, and sending and receiving electronic mail.[27] It is important to realise that these same advantages can be considered a threat to certain aspects of society through misuse and mismanagement. There are two sides to this argument of proportionality. And no conclusive all-embracing solution. Perhaps we are due a sequel of George Orwell’s publication, possibly titled â€Å"2084†. One wonders what premonitions would he postulate if he were here today. The introduction of CCTV was viewed as a tool to reduce the amount of crime. To date there is very little substantive research evidence to support this.[28] Perhaps if the state were to provide more community policing on the streets of the UK this may be more productive. Further, a review carried out by the Home Office that looked at street lighting found a significant reduction in the levels of crime to the order of 20%.[29] The results from a YouGov Poll[30] have indicated that 79% of people believe that Britain is increasingly being described as a surveillance society. And a further 66% do not trust governments of whatever political party to keep information on databases confidential. Although 97% agree to CCTV in banks and building societies and a further 85% In my opinion the state wishes to control us absolutely, and to achieve this, it must know absolutely everything about us, every minute of our day. Surveillance Web – the rise of visual surveillance in an English city Bibliography Legislation Textbooks Goold B and Neyland D, New Directions in Surveillance and Privacy (2009 Willan Publishing.) Haggerty K and Samatas M, Surveillance and Democracy, (2010 Routledge.) Hier S and Green J, The Surveillance Studies Reader, (2007 Open University Press) Mattelart A, The Globalization of Surveillance, (2010 Polity Press.) Barendt, Privacy as a constitutional Right and Value, (1997 Oxford University Press) Journals Taylor N, ‘State Surveillance and the Right to Privacy’ Surveillance and Society 1(1):66-85. Lyon D, ‘Everyday Surveillance, Personal Data and social classifications’ Information Communication Society, (2002) Routledge. vol 5 issue 2, Websites Privacy International Leading Surveillance Societies in the EU and the World Survey 2007 accessed 3December 2011. Nidirect Government Services, How is CCTV used in the Community, accessed 05 December 2011. http://www.bigbrotheriswatching.co.uk/ http://www.ico.gov.uk/for_organisations/data_protection/notification/cost.aspx Information Commissioners Office website. Newspaper articles R Ford, ‘Beware Rise of Big Brother State, warns data Watchdog’ The Times,16 August 2004. Sunday Times, A Camera network designed to catch criminals is being turned on innocent motorists reports David Leppard. 4/4/2010. Philip Johnson, Home Affairs Editor, Your Life in their Lens, 02 November 2006 The Telegraph. Q A Birmingham Terrorist Cameras, 17 June 2010. YouGov/ Daily Telegraph, 28th- 30th November 2006. Miscellaneous Surveillance: Citizens and the State Volume 1: Report House of Lords select committee on the Constitution 2nd Report of Session 2008-09. M Gill and A Spriggs Assessing the Impact of CCTV, London Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorie, 43, 60-61. Surveillance, Order and Social Control End of Award Report to the Economic and Social Research Council in respect of grant L210252023 Clive Norris Department of Social Policy, University of Hull State Surveillance and the Right to Privacy Nick Taylor1 Jane Clift Respondent and Slough Borough Council Your life in their lens the telegraph [1] R Ford, ‘Beware Rise of Big Brother State, warns data Watchdog’ The Times,16 August 2004. [2] Surveillance: Citizens and the State Volume 1: Report House of Lords select committee on the Constitution 2nd Report of Session 2008-09 para 1. [3] Ibid. [4] Ibid para 18 [5] Patton v Poole Borough Council (2010) IPT/09/01/C) para 8. [6] Privacy International Leading Surveillance Societies in the EU and the World Survey 2007 accessed 3December 2011. [7] See UN General Assembly, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948, Council of Europe, European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and fundamental freedoms, 4 November 1950, Directive 95/46/EC on the Protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and the free movement of such data. Privacy regulations aimed at governing how personal information is processed were introduced in the 1970’s and 1980’s. [8] European Convention on Human Rights, Article 8(2) There shall be no interference by public authority with the exercise of this right except such as is in accordance with the law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security, public safety or the economic well being of the country. [9] Barendt, Privacy as a constitutional Right and Value, (Oxford University Press 1997) p 7. [10] Kaye v Robertson [1991] FSR 62. [11] Surveillance: Citizens and the State Report, (n2) at 69. [12] Surveillance: Citizens and the State Report, (n2) at 127. [13] M Gill and A Spriggs Assessing the Impact of CCTV, London Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorie, 43, 60-61. [14] Sunday Times, A Camera network designed to catch criminals is being turned on innocent motorists reports David Leppard. 4/4/2010. [15] Philip Johnson, Home Affairs Editor, Your Life in their Lens, 02 November 2006 The Telegraph. [16]Nidirect Government Services, How is CCTV used in the Community, accessed 05 December 2011. [17] Councillor Hazel Harding, Leader of Lancashire County Council and chair of the Local Government Association Safer Communities Board. [18] Surveillance: Citizens and the State (n2) at 74 [19] http://www.bigbrotheriswatching.co.uk/ [20] Police Service of Northern Ireland, Policy Directive PD 01/08 PSNI ANPR Systems, 17 December 2007. [21] http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10341867 Q A Birmingham Terrorist Cameras, 17 June 2010. [22] Ibid at p 21. [23] Surveillance studies Reader – Get in short loan lib [24] D Lyon, ‘Everyday Surveillance, Personal Data and social classifications’ Information Communication Society, vol 5 issue 2, (2002) Routledge. P 1. [25] http://www.ico.gov.uk/for_organisations/data_protection/notification/cost.aspx Information Commissioners Office website. [26] Surveillance state and citizens report. [27] S Hier and J Green, The Surveillance Studies Reader, Open University Press, (2007) pg. 77. [28] R Armitage, ‘To CCTV or not to CCTV’ (2002) Nacro, Crime and Social Policy Section [29] Ibid. [30] YouGov/ Daily Telegraph, 28th- 30th November 2006.

Analysis Of Guantanamo Bay

Analysis Of Guantanamo Bay Guantanamo Bays detention center is a United States operated detainment facility located on the southern tip of Cuba. It became primarily newsworthy post 9/11 when many Americans felt threatened by the uncertainty of terrorism. Guantanamo Bay has been sharply criticized by human rights activists such as Amnesty International and the debate includes some very major political figures. Although it was brought to the United States Supreme Court recently, most major political figures have historically seemed to stray away from the subject due to its controversial nature. The major topic which I will discuss in this paper is the legal sovereignty of Guantanamo Bay and the fine line the United States government walks between national security and civil liberties. From the acquisition of Guantanamo to the current legal standing to the various positions from major political figures worldwide, basically every aspect of this issue remains debated and extremely controversial. I will attempt in m y paper to present an unbiased, factual account of Guantanamo Bay and its current world standing. The United States first acquired Guantanamo Bay in 1898 when it intervened against Spain to assist Cuba in their independence. Ironically, the United States stepped in to assist Cuba with their fight for independence from Spain but ended up playing a role very similar to Spains role. Since the United States historically was not major world play it needed Cuba and the Spanish-American War to secure its own impact on Latin America and it subsequently became a major impact on every Cuban decision for the next sixty years. In 1901, the U.S government signed into law the Platt Amendment which was an amendment added to the 1901 Army Appropriations Act. This amendment outlined the conditions of future Cuban- U.S relations and gave the United States the legal rights to, among other things, Guantanamo Bay.  [1]  The agreement between the United States and Cuba states: To enable the United States to maintain the independence of Cuba, and to protect the people thereof, as well as for its own defense, the Cuban Government will sell or lease to the United States the lands necessary for coaling or naval stations, at certain specified points, to be agreed upon with the President of the United States.  [2]   Although this was signed by the President of Cuba and the President of the United States in 1903, the legality has since been called into question. The United States diplomatic pressure, backed by military occupation at the time was a huge impact on the agreement in question. Although the United States agreed to pay a nominal rent of 3,386.25 per year to Cuba, the agreement was largely in favor of the U.S government. In 1960, when Fidel Castro came into power he immediately refused to accept any further payment and publically bashed the United States occupation of Guantanamo Bay. According to Article 52 of the 1969 Vienna Law of Treaties, A treaty is void if its conclusion has been procured by the threat or use of force in violation of the principles of international law embodied in the Charter of the United Nations.  [3]  At the time Cuba agreed to lease Guantanamo Bay to the United States, the U.S had just assisted them in gaining their independence from Spain and was still a h uge influence in their government. Cuba was not in the position to tell them no, regardless of Cubas preference on the matter. However, the United States has argued that according to Article 4, Without prejudice to the application of any rules set forth in the present Convention to which treaties would be subject under international law independently of the Convention, the Convention applies only to treaties which are concluded by States after the entry into force of the present Convention with regard to such States.  [4]   the treated is still in effect and should be honored. Since Cuba still does not have the force or military capability to make the United States leave, the United States is still occupying Guantanamo. The topic received further attention post 9/11 with President Bushs War on Terrorism. At this point, no one really knew where Guantanamo Bay fell in terms of ultimate sovereignty and whos rules applied to the base. Also, since the military was in charge of the use of the land, there was very little transparency about what was actually going on there. Finally in June of 2004, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Rasul v. Bush, that U.S Courts do have the jurisdiction to handle cases involving foreign nationals wrongfully held in Guantanamo Bay saying that to determine the legality of the Executives potentially indefinite detention of individuals who claim to be wholly innocent of wrongdoing. After many decades, detainees, or enemy combatants as they were formerly known, had the right and access to challenge the legality of their detention.  [5]   Guantanamo Bays detention facility is a heavy topic that spans across all levels of government. Former President Bush and the current president, Barack Obama have both been very vocal about their opinions on the subject. The Bush administration and the Justice Department carefully prepared the legal groundwork for Guantanamo Bay post 9/11. They claimed that the Republic of Cuba has ultimate sovereignty over Guantanamo. As a result of this, they had no obligation to uphold the United States constitution and the detainees had no legal rights in U.S courts. However, they also argued that Cuban law has no effect in Guantanamo, so the area in effect was basically lawless. President Obama on the other hand, took a completely different position on Guantanamo Bay. Within his first weeks as President he vowed to shut down Guantanamo Bay within the year. In view of the significant concerns raised by these detentions, both within the United States and internationally, prompt and appropriate disposition of the individuals currently detained at Guantanamo and closure of the facility would further the national security and foreign policy interests of the United States and the interests of justice,  [6]   Although it has been over a year, the Obama administration maintains that it is still their intention to shut down the detention center. They also issued a long awaited new rule book for the Obama-era war court that put an end to pre-confinement detention counting toward post Guantanamo sentences(to avoid situations like Salim Hamdan which I will discuss later)  [7]  . The legislative branch does not seem to play nearly as large as a role as the executive and judicial branch in this scenario. However, Attorney General Eric Holder Jr. blamed Congress for not coming to a consensus on where a replacement facility for Guantanamo should be and for not approving funding for the new detention center in a timely manner. The bottom line is these techniques have hurt our image around the world, the damage they have done to our interests far outweighed whatever benefit they gave us and they are not essential to our national security.  [8]  Although their role is not as significant, they definitely make a lot of voters question the Obama Administration and his promise to close Guantanamo Bay within one year of his presidency. In a major rebuke to President Barack Obama, the Senate voted overwhelmingly on Wednesday to block the transfer of Guantanamo detainees to the United States and denied the administration the millions it sought to close the prison. The 90-6 Senate vote-paired with similar House action last week-was a clear sign to Obama that he faces a tough fight getting the Democratic-controlled Congress to agree with his plans to shut down the detention center and move the 240 detainees.  [9]   The main problem they face is that forty-eight detainees left still need to be held indefinitely and they have nowhere to put them if they leave Cuba. We have to have an option, and that will require congressional support for the funding request we have made, Holder said.  [10]   The judicial branch, as seen in Rasul v. Bush, has chosen to hear a few Guantanamo Bay cases although, historically most cases were heard by military courts. Although Rasul v. Bush was a huge landmark case, there were a few other decisions decided around this time period that gave rights to the prisoners in Guantanamo as well. Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, which was actually decided on the same day, June 28, 2004 (although argued a week after) as Rasul v. Bush, ruled on the legality of holding a United States citizen indefinitely as an enemy combatant. The Supreme Court ruled that although Hamdis detention was authorized, the Fifth Amendments due process gives all citizens the right to challenge their detention. This cased differed from many of the Guantanamo Bay cases because Hamdi was actually a U.S citizen instead of a foreign national. Bourmediene v. Bush was another landmark case for Guantanamo Bays detainees and was decided recently in 2008. The Supreme Court decided in Bourmediene v. Bus h that ALL detainees at Guantanamo Bay should have a right to challenge their detention through U.S Federal Courts.  [11]   Navi Pillay who is the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights was extremely happy about Obamas decision to close Guantanamo Bay. The fact that President [Barack] Obama has placed such a high priority on closing Guantà ¡namo and set in motion a system to safeguard the fundamental rights of the detainees there is extremely encouraging, she stated. The High Commission for Human Rights also wants the United States to change its approach on tactics used to detain individuals abroad. Pillay even went far enough to raise the issue of compensation for those judged to be innocent and called for a thorough investigation into allegations of torture at the Guantà ¡namo centre.  [12]  Although the United Nations does not have any physical way to enforce their recommendations, they are an extremely influential organization and hold a lot of weight internationally. They are expected to be unbiased with their recommendations and are portrayed as an international law and human rights peace keeper to facilitate achieving world peace. The last major players in this controversial situation are human rights interest groups such as Amnesty International. Amnesty International has been a huge, non-governmental player in the debate and was notably quoted for calling Guantanamo Bay a human rights scandal. They actually have an entire section on their website dedicated to Guantanamo Bay and quotes from various officials and organizations describing the torture and speaking out about the legality of Guantanamo. The war on terror does not justify violations of international human rights law. The Counter Terror with Justice campaign works to stop torture; close Guantà ¡namo; end illegal U.S. detentions; stop extraordinary rendition; restore fair trials and habeas corpus; and hold accountable all those who authorized and implemented these human rights abuses.  [13]   Even though Amnesty International is only a non-governmental organization, they have an incredible standing worldwide and they are consistently setting the standard for other human rights organizations.  [14]  They also have a huge following internationally and receive a lot of volunteer and monetary support. Although they have had a lot of success and received the Nobel Peace Prize for their campaign against torture, they have also been criticized by many political figures and even religious organizations such as the Catholic Church. They have also lately been mixed up with alleged ties to a former Guantanamo Bay detainee and his pro-jihad group which forced a senior Amnesty International official to resign her position because of her disappointment in the organization.  [15]   Rumsfeld, while still the U.S Secretary of Defense, was quoted by saying the prisoners in Guantanamo Bay were the most dangerous, best-trained, vicious killers on the face of the earth. Although this is clearly biased because the Bush administration was very pro-keeping Guantanamo Bay open, Rumsfeld does make a valid point. While doing my research, I noticed a time line that the Washington Post published on Guantanamo Bay. Salim Hamdan, who was allegedly Osama bin Ladens driver and very active in the planning of various terrorist activities, was released to Yemen from Guantanamo in November of 2008 and was to be tried for his crimes by the Yemen courts. He ended up getting only five and a half years confinement and a little over five years was credited because of his previous imprisonment in Guantanamo and various U.S custody locations. He was actually released a little over a month after his transfer to Yemen and was free to do whatever he wanted. I also read a lot on Yemen and thei r position on the War on Terrorism. When the United States offered to return prisoners to Yemen last year, Yemen officials demanded money for a rehabilitation center. The Yemeni government uses terrorism and fighting terrorism as a tool to get political and financial benefit, said Khaled Alansi. They did not have anything to market themselves to the world, especially the United States, except fighting terrorism.  [16]   Prior to all my research on Guantanamo Bay, I thought the idea behind the detention center was completely ridiculous. It was basically a lawless black hole where the United States government could do whatever they wanted. In addition, very few reports were issued by the government because of confidentiality and the nature of their crimes so it was very hard to tell what was really going on there. From what I read, there had been suicides by multiple prisoners and even reports of guards defacing the Muslim holy book, the Quran. Although my opinion is still in favor of shutting down Guantanamo, I do understand the severity of the issue at hand a little better now. I think the biggest factor that changed my opinion was the example of Hamdan(which I discussed earlier) and Yemens position on the matter. I am afraid that once released, many prisoners will walk free with an even deeper hatred for the United States and a greater passion for punishing us. Torture and abuse cost American livesI learned in Iraq that the No. 1 reason foreign fighters flocked there to fight were the abuses carried out at Abu Ghraib and Guantanamo. Our policy of torture was directly and swiftly recruiting fighters for al-Qaeda in IraqHow anyone can say that torture keeps Americans safe is beyond me unless you dont count American soldiers as Americans.  [17]   In one sense, Guantanamo Bay is a catch 22. If we keep the prisoners locked away in Guantanamo we wont have to worry about prisoners being releases and beginning to plan terrorist attacks again. However, if we dont release them we are alienating so many in the Middle East that we will eventually have many new threats. Regardless of national security, laws are in place for a reason and what we have been doing in Guantanamo seems to be highly unethical and should be illegal. Since the United States does have complete control over the territory, I believe that U.S laws should definitely apply. The United States is a country that has always prided itself on human rights and our legal system and there should not be a loophole created when the government deems it necessary. Although the process is slow, the courts have seemed to be regulating the United States militarys full control over Guantanamo. Like I discussed previously, the Obama administration has actually pledged to shut down Guantanamo Bay anyway so the problem is not nearly severe as it was under the Bush, more conservative, administration. So much of the previous information we have on Guantanamos sovereignty and who has complete control seems to be lost in translation. A sensible policy for future use would be to either put Guantanamo under our constitutions regulation or possibly draft new legislation for the area. Also, in regards to possession of Guantanamo, I believe the United States should set a time period by which they pledge to give Guantanamo Bay back to Cuba. The grounds in which the United States was given Guantanamo Bay was shaky as it was since Cuba were still under U.S rule and it does not seem right to allow a country to make a treaty with itself. Since the primary purpose of Guantanamo post cold-war has been to detain suspected terrorist and the Obama Administration decided to no longer use it for that purpose, it is not nearly as important anymore for the U.S military. In addition, it was a perfect location in the beginning of the 1900s since we wanted to expand into South America and exert our dominance but global positioning is no longer a primary goal. Then again, during the Cold War, Guantanamo was a prime strategic location if we were to go to war with Cuba but we are no longer at the brink of nuclear war and if we felt the need to intervene in South America (I hope not) w e would not necessarily need Cuba. Although I do not plan to get involved in this situation, I believe the best way to fix an issue such as this would be through the legal system. Since I have always been extremely interested in law, I read part of Guantanamo and the Abuse of Presidential Power by Joseph Margulies. Margulies was the lead council in Rasul v. Bush and talked about his experiences throughout most of the book. Every year, the Supreme Court agrees to review only a tiny fraction of the cases clamoring for its attention. For that reason, many lawyers believe, not without reason, that the most important document in a case is the one that asks the court to accept review, call the petition for writ of certiorari. The petition in Rasul, drafted in the summer of 2003, went through more than dozen drafts, and in the final product, my colleagues and I tried to capture not simply the legal reasons for review, but the moral consequences if the Court were to remain silent. My greatest fear was that the Bush Administration would simply forget about the prisoners, in the vain hope the world would too.  [18]   Margulies describes in detail how much time and thought went into this brief. Not only was it almost impossible to get the Supreme Court to recognize the issue and the case but also it was not like a typical writ of certiorari. It was drafted more than a dozen times and contained not only the legal grounds as to why it should be heard but the ethical and moral justifications as well. This is not a law suit that anyone can get through to the Supreme Court. I think the main way I could personally get involved, a side from getting my law degree and going into international civil rights law, is spreading awareness. I could try writing to my local senator or possibly even get published in a local newspaper or magazine. The President and Congresss main goal is to get reelected so theyll ultimately do what is important to the voters.

An Overview of the Rare Disease Known as Kabuki Syndrome Essay

An Overview of the Rare Disease Known as Kabuki Syndrome As I look to graduate, I become increasingly aware that I have my entire life to look forward to. Even though I will have struggles throughout my life, I still have my well being to fall back on. When all else fails, I am and hopefully always will be self-assured that I am here, healthy and able to bring myself through the worst of circumstances. This realization and knowledge has presented itself in the most realistic way just within the past three years, while I continually helped disabled children learn various life skills. In these three years, my attention was unforgivably snagged by one child, Damion, who seemed to have an unfathomable web of trials and difficulties in his fragile little life. On an undying attempt to learn more about this child, I started working with him one-on-one and with his therapists and teachers. I soon came to realize that Damion had moderate to severe learning disabilities, speech impediments, fine (small muscles) and gross (large muscles) motor problems and sensory difficulties. His previous doctors considered Kabuki Syndrome, an extremely rare disease that is terribly difficult to diagnose, as a possible diagnosis. Even though Damion doesn't posses most of the characteristics accompanying Kabuki Syndrome, he may still have it. What would it take to diagnose him with the rare disease? Could Damion even be considered a Kabuki patient with only minor implications? Through this paper, answers to these pending questions will be portrayed, and the reader will gain a real understanding of what is currently known about Kabuki Syndrome. Two doctors from Japan, Dr. Niikawa and Dr. Kuroki first discovered Kabuki Syndrome in 1980 ("Kabuk... .... MedicineNet. Retrieved March 25, 2002 from the World Wide Web: http://medicinenet.com/script/main/AlphaIdx.asp?li=MNI&p=A_DICT Mhanni, A., & Chudley, A. (1999) . Genetic landmarks through philately &endash; Kabuki theater and Kabuki syndrome. In A. Chudley (Ed.) , Clinical Genetics (pp. 116-117) . Ireland: Munksgaard. Mhanni, A., Cross, H., & Chudley, A. (1999) . Kabuki syndrome: description of dental findings in 8 patients. Clinical Genetics (pp. 154-157) . Ireland: Munksgaard. Olney, A., Schaefer, G., & Kolodziej, P. (1998, September) . Kabuki syndrome. Ear, Nose and Throat Journal. Retrieved March 15, 2002 from the World Wide Web: http:/www.entjournal.com/html/september_98_syndrome.html An overview of kabuki syndrome. Geocities. Retrieved March 15, 2002 from the World Wide Web: http://www.geocities.com/Heartland/Fields/2978/kabuki.html An Overview of the Rare Disease Known as Kabuki Syndrome Essay An Overview of the Rare Disease Known as Kabuki Syndrome As I look to graduate, I become increasingly aware that I have my entire life to look forward to. Even though I will have struggles throughout my life, I still have my well being to fall back on. When all else fails, I am and hopefully always will be self-assured that I am here, healthy and able to bring myself through the worst of circumstances. This realization and knowledge has presented itself in the most realistic way just within the past three years, while I continually helped disabled children learn various life skills. In these three years, my attention was unforgivably snagged by one child, Damion, who seemed to have an unfathomable web of trials and difficulties in his fragile little life. On an undying attempt to learn more about this child, I started working with him one-on-one and with his therapists and teachers. I soon came to realize that Damion had moderate to severe learning disabilities, speech impediments, fine (small muscles) and gross (large muscles) motor problems and sensory difficulties. His previous doctors considered Kabuki Syndrome, an extremely rare disease that is terribly difficult to diagnose, as a possible diagnosis. Even though Damion doesn't posses most of the characteristics accompanying Kabuki Syndrome, he may still have it. What would it take to diagnose him with the rare disease? Could Damion even be considered a Kabuki patient with only minor implications? Through this paper, answers to these pending questions will be portrayed, and the reader will gain a real understanding of what is currently known about Kabuki Syndrome. Two doctors from Japan, Dr. Niikawa and Dr. Kuroki first discovered Kabuki Syndrome in 1980 ("Kabuk... .... MedicineNet. Retrieved March 25, 2002 from the World Wide Web: http://medicinenet.com/script/main/AlphaIdx.asp?li=MNI&p=A_DICT Mhanni, A., & Chudley, A. (1999) . Genetic landmarks through philately &endash; Kabuki theater and Kabuki syndrome. In A. Chudley (Ed.) , Clinical Genetics (pp. 116-117) . Ireland: Munksgaard. Mhanni, A., Cross, H., & Chudley, A. (1999) . Kabuki syndrome: description of dental findings in 8 patients. Clinical Genetics (pp. 154-157) . Ireland: Munksgaard. Olney, A., Schaefer, G., & Kolodziej, P. (1998, September) . Kabuki syndrome. Ear, Nose and Throat Journal. Retrieved March 15, 2002 from the World Wide Web: http:/www.entjournal.com/html/september_98_syndrome.html An overview of kabuki syndrome. Geocities. Retrieved March 15, 2002 from the World Wide Web: http://www.geocities.com/Heartland/Fields/2978/kabuki.html

A Defect in Nurturing in Mice Lacking the Immediate Early Gene FosB Ess

Background to the Project In early 1995, an M.D-Ph.D student, Jennifer Brown, was breeding mice with an inactivated form of the gene FosB. With the inactivation of the gene, healthy pups from the mutated mice died quickly. Observing this occurrance, Brown found that the mother mice ignored her offspring. From this discovery, Brown proposed that the inactivation of the immediate early gene FosB causes a defect in the nurturing behaviors of female mice. To prove this, Brown bred a series of knockout mice with the inactivated FosB gene. She then observed the nurturing behaviors of the knockout mice and compared them to those of the normal mice. The Test Results FosB Mutant Development and Abnormalities: FosB mutant homozygous females were born and developed as any normal mouse, but were ten percent smaller than wild type mice. When the fosB homozygous females were mated with fosB homozygous mutant males, the resulting pregnancies were normal and carried to term. However, twenty-four to fourty-eight hours after delivery, the mortality rate of the pups was in excess of fifty percent. The high occurrance of lethality could be attributed to either the mutant mothers, the mutant pups, or both. To isolate the cause of the high mutant pup mortality rate, heterozygous males were mated with homozygous females and vice versa. As a result, it was found that the number of surviving pups in any given pregnancy relied primarily upon the genotype of the mother, and was independent of father or pup genotype. This supports the idea that the survival relies heavily on the nurturing ability of the fosB mothers. Physical Trait Analysis: To isolate the defect in the mother that contributed to the death of her pups, a physical trait ana... ...aper think that this is involved with the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is located in the brain stem. The gene mutation did not effect any other functions of the mice. This indicates that FosB is exclusive to nurturing behavior. The discovery of the functions of the FosB gene in mice could lead to similar discoveries for the human genome. Ethical ramifications of such discoveries are a hot topic in current scientific society. What questions might be raised by such a discovery? If this gene does exist in humans, should people with mutated alleles not be allowed to raise their children? Should it be corrected in some way by science? Is having a mutated gene an excuse for child abuse? Is it a defense in court? The answers to these questions are not clearly defined, but there are several sources of information for the public to access before making up their minds.

JFK ASSASINATION THEORY Essays -- essays papers

JFK ASSASINATION THEORY November 22, 1963, was one of the darkest days in the history of the United States of America. It was a day of complete turmoil. People all over the country dropped everything that they were doing. Children were permitted to go home from school and people huddled around their televisions in shock as they watched the day's events. On this day, John F. Kennedy was brutally assassinated in Dallas, Texas. John F. Kennedy was probably the most beloved and popular president to ever sit in the Oval Office. He was the icon of our country. His youth and charisma personified the American citizen. His beautiful wife and his two young children optimized the perfect family. His war hero and his highly educated manor earned the respect and reverence of American society. He was truly the "common man's" president. John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born on May 29, 1917 in Brookline, Massachusetts. The Kennedy name had already been known throughout the country and many of his relatives were involved in politics. He was destined to make political noise in our country. His family was also extremely wealthy. His father was a financier and a businessperson who was rumored to have made a great deal of money from bootlegging during the Prohibition era. John F. Kennedy lived lavishly throughout his life. He attended an expensive college prep school in Connecticut during his high school years. He then went on to study semesters at Princeton and Harvard. As he grew older and more involved in politics, his campaigns were known for his large staff and private jet trips. His wealth also helped fund a televised debate which helped him to secure the presidential campaign against Richard Nixon. John F. Kennedy definitely did not allow his wealth to turn him into a spoiled pretty boy. He participated in football, swimming, and sailing while attending Harvard. He also served in the Navy during World War II. As a matter of fact, JFK worked out for five months to strengthen his lower back, which was injured in a football game, just so he could be accepted into the service. While commanding the torpedo boat PT- 109, he was responsible for saving the lives of his crew members. This turned into one of the most famous war stories in history and was later turned into a movie. His bravery during this famous event won him the Navy and Marine... ...nd he fought for what he believed in. But, the uncommon man; the politicians, the big businessmen, the criminals; they hated him. They did not respect the fact that he spoke his mind and fought for his beliefs. As stated above, he made a lot of enemies during his term and in the end I think they got their revenge. Kennedy's assassination was definitely a conspiracy. I believe it was one that involved many, many different people throughout the world. I also believe that the US government helped cover up what really happened and knows who is truly behind this sick plot. Maybe one day we'll find out who really is responsible for his death; maybe not. Until then, John F. Kennedy's body rests in Arlington National Cemetery alongside his loving wife. People go there to this day and break down in tears. It is truly a sad place to be. It is sad to see how much he meant to his people. It is sad to see that a man that was loved by so many, was also hated by some. WORKS CITED 1.Johnson,Glen. "Camelot Revisited." Associated Press, 1995. 2. http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/home.htm 3. Http://til.ai.org/jfk.htm 4. Http://jfkennedy.8m.com 5. Http://www.historychannel.com JFK ASSASINATION THEORY Essays -- essays papers JFK ASSASINATION THEORY November 22, 1963, was one of the darkest days in the history of the United States of America. It was a day of complete turmoil. People all over the country dropped everything that they were doing. Children were permitted to go home from school and people huddled around their televisions in shock as they watched the day's events. On this day, John F. Kennedy was brutally assassinated in Dallas, Texas. John F. Kennedy was probably the most beloved and popular president to ever sit in the Oval Office. He was the icon of our country. His youth and charisma personified the American citizen. His beautiful wife and his two young children optimized the perfect family. His war hero and his highly educated manor earned the respect and reverence of American society. He was truly the "common man's" president. John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born on May 29, 1917 in Brookline, Massachusetts. The Kennedy name had already been known throughout the country and many of his relatives were involved in politics. He was destined to make political noise in our country. His family was also extremely wealthy. His father was a financier and a businessperson who was rumored to have made a great deal of money from bootlegging during the Prohibition era. John F. Kennedy lived lavishly throughout his life. He attended an expensive college prep school in Connecticut during his high school years. He then went on to study semesters at Princeton and Harvard. As he grew older and more involved in politics, his campaigns were known for his large staff and private jet trips. His wealth also helped fund a televised debate which helped him to secure the presidential campaign against Richard Nixon. John F. Kennedy definitely did not allow his wealth to turn him into a spoiled pretty boy. He participated in football, swimming, and sailing while attending Harvard. He also served in the Navy during World War II. As a matter of fact, JFK worked out for five months to strengthen his lower back, which was injured in a football game, just so he could be accepted into the service. While commanding the torpedo boat PT- 109, he was responsible for saving the lives of his crew members. This turned into one of the most famous war stories in history and was later turned into a movie. His bravery during this famous event won him the Navy and Marine... ...nd he fought for what he believed in. But, the uncommon man; the politicians, the big businessmen, the criminals; they hated him. They did not respect the fact that he spoke his mind and fought for his beliefs. As stated above, he made a lot of enemies during his term and in the end I think they got their revenge. Kennedy's assassination was definitely a conspiracy. I believe it was one that involved many, many different people throughout the world. I also believe that the US government helped cover up what really happened and knows who is truly behind this sick plot. Maybe one day we'll find out who really is responsible for his death; maybe not. Until then, John F. Kennedy's body rests in Arlington National Cemetery alongside his loving wife. People go there to this day and break down in tears. It is truly a sad place to be. It is sad to see how much he meant to his people. It is sad to see that a man that was loved by so many, was also hated by some. WORKS CITED 1.Johnson,Glen. "Camelot Revisited." Associated Press, 1995. 2. http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/home.htm 3. Http://til.ai.org/jfk.htm 4. Http://jfkennedy.8m.com 5. Http://www.historychannel.com

Gender, Hierarchy and Leadership Essay

Although women’s status has improved remarkably in the 20th century in many societies, women continue to lack access to power and leadership compared with men. This issue reviews research and theory concerning women’s leadership. The articles included in the issue provide evidence of bias in the evaluation of women, discuss effects of gender stereotypes on women’s influence and leadership behaviors, and evaluate strategies for change. This introductory article provides a brief summary of changes in women’s status and power in employment and education and the absence of change at the upper echelons of power in organizations. Also included is an outline of the contributions of the other articles in the issue. It is an exciting period for scholars who study how gender affects leadership: The presence of greater numbers of women in positions of power has produced new opportunities to observe female leaders along with male leaders. There has been an increase in the numbers of women in positions of public leadership, including highly visible positions. Of course, focusing on women who occupy such leadership positions should not cause us to forget that women have always exercised leadership, particularly in families and throughout communities. However, until recently, women were extremely rare in major positions of public leadership. Now women are in a small minority in such roles, but present. Political leadership illustrates this trend: In history only 42 women have ever served as presidents or prime ministers, and 25 of those have come to office in the 1990s (Adler, 1999). Almost all of the women who have attained top positions in corporations around the world have done so in the 1990s. Public interest in women’s potential as leaders is fueled by high-profile women serving in powerful positions; Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O’Connor, U.S. National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice, and former Secretary of State Madeline Albright are just three recent examples from the United States. Many of the newspaper and magazine articles written about these and other female leaders have a positive tone (e.g., Dobbs, 1999; â€Å"A Practical Judicial Eye,† 2000). The idea that women might hold such positions and the suspicion that they might exercise power somewhat differently than men no longer seems as alarming to people as in the past. Indeed, people are receptive to the idea that different might be better or at least not worse than what the nation experiences now. In response to the Gallup Poll’s question, â€Å"Do you think that this country would be governed better or worse if more women were in political office?† 57% of the respondents in the United States chose the response â€Å"better,† with greater endorsement by women (62%) than men (51%; Gallup, 1995). Only 17% of the respondents indicated that such a change would worsen government. The excitement about the presence of just a few women in powerful positions raises the question of why, with women’s roles changing so dramatically in the last decade, the numbers of women in these positions are so small. Indeed, the concept of the glass ceiling was introduced by the Wall Street Journal to account for this disjunction (â€Å"The Corporate Woman,† 1986) and has since been acknowledged by journalists and the public as an invisible but powerful barrier that allows women to advance only to a certain level. Evidence supports the glass ceiling metaphor. By some yardsticks, the United States and other advanced industrial societies appear to be approaching gender equality. In the United States, women have entered the paid labor force in large numbers and now constitute 47% of workers (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2001b). Whereas in 1972 only 18% of managers were female, the proportion of women has steadily increased over time (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1982) and currently women make up 45% of managers and administrators (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2001a). In education, women possess 51% of all bachelor’s degrees that have been awarded (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000). Since 1981– 82, more of these degrees have gone to women than men, with women currently receiving 56% (U.S. Department of Education, 2001). Women also possess 45% of the advanced degrees that have been awarded (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000) and currently earn 42% of PhDs and 43% of professional degrees (e.g., those in law or medicine; Morgan, 2001). Although these aggregate statistics on labor force participation and education suggest gender equality, the distributions of men and women in elite leadership positions tell quite a different story. To borrow former President Clinton’s phrase, the tops of managerial and governmental hierarchies do not â€Å"look like America.† In Fortune 500 companies, women constitute only 4% of the top officers, 3% of the most highly paid officers, and 0.4% of CEOs (Catalyst, 2000). In U.S. politics, only 13% of senators, 14% of congressional representatives, and 10% of state governors are women (Center for the American Woman and Politics, 2001). In the military, women make up 2% of the top officers (U.S. Department of Defense, 1998). Although about 30% of lawyers are women, women make up only 15% of law firm partners and 5% of managing partners in large firms (Rhode, 2001). In contrast to the changes in women’s education, labor force participation, and employment as managers, little change has occurred in terms of placing women in the most powerful leadership positions. The lack of women in powerful positions used to be explained by many as a â€Å"pipeline problem,† that is, the interpretation that women with the appropriate education and background were not available. Even though the pipeline explanation remains popular among male CEOs (Ragins, Townsend, & Mattis, 1998), its plausibility has been eroded by the dramatic increases in women’s employment as managers. Because the pipeline is full of women, this idea has given way to the glass ceiling in the popular imagination. The glass ceiling is a metaphor for prejudice and discrimination. To the extent that people are prejudiced against women as leaders and potential leaders, this prejudice would manifest itself in many ways and have multiple effects. Prejudice can take subtle or blatant forms and can be held by employers, customers, voters, and even by the targets of prejudice themselves. Prejudice against women as leaders and potential leaders would interfere with women’s ability to gain authority and exercise influence and would produce discrimination when it is translated into personnel decisions within organizations and political structures. Because social psychologists have long studied prejudice and industrial/organizational psychologists have studied managerial roles and organizational processes, the stage is set in these fields for understanding the rarity of women in powerful positions. The authors of the articles in this issue have all made important contributions to this developing kn owledge. Organization of the Issue Bias in the Evaluation of Women Leaders The articles in the first section of the issue present evidence of biased evaluation of women’s competence and potential for leadership, showing that across a wide variety of settings and contexts, women are presumed to be less competent than men and less worthy to hold leadership positions. In the first article of the section, Cecilia L. Ridgeway gives an overview of expectations states theory and proposes that gender differences in influence and leadership occur because people presume that men are more competent and legitimate as leaders than women are. These beliefs foster hierarchical patterns of social interaction through which men exert more influence and exercise more leadership. In support of the theory, Ridgeway reviews research examining gender differences in behavior in taskoriented groups and identifies conditions that modify these differences. In the section’s second article, Madeline E. Heilman reviews research on leadership in organizations, showing that as a consequence of biases against women, people devalue the work of female managers. When the value of that work is impossible to deny, people tend to attribute it to external factors rather than the women’s competence. Finally, when external attributions cannot be made, people dislike and reject successful female managers. Virginia E. Schein’s article, the third in the section, reviews cross-cultural research on bias against female leaders. Studies in the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, China, and Japan all reveal that men are perceived to be more qualified as managers than women are, especially by men. In addition, Schein identifies changes in the perception of management over time and discusses why men from different countries with varying political, economic, and social conditions all continue to view women as less competent and suited to leadership than men. In the section’s fourth article, Jennifer Boldry, Wendy Wood, and Deborah A. Kashy describe an empirical study that revealed gender biases against women in a military setting. The authors report that both male and female cadets considered men to have more leadership ability and women to have more character (e.g., integrity, lack of selfishness) than the other sex, perceptions that are congruent with traditional gender stereotypes. Unfortunately for women’s potential in the military, cadets’ success in the corps was best predicted by perceived leadership ability, not perceived character, suggesting that a person’s success in the military depends on conforming to a masculine model of leadership. In the final article in this section, Monica Biernat and Kathleen Fuegen report two new empirical studies documenting shifting standards in evaluating women and men in work and academic settings. Presenting further evidence of bias against women, their findings revealed that female study participants set harsher standards for hiring female than male applicants and were less likely to hire women than men. In contrast to other articles in this issue showing greater gender bias by males than females, male study participants did not show gender biases in their hiring decisions. Gender Effects on Social Influence and Hireability The authors in the issue’s second section provide evidence showing that, in order to be influential, women must combine agentic qualities, such as competence and directiveness, with communal qualities, such as warmth and friendliness. In the first article of the section, Linda L. Carli reviews the literature on gender effects on social influence, reporting that males exert greater influence over others than females do. She argues that this occurs for two reasons. First, females are generally presumed to be less competent than males and therefore less credible as influence agents. Second, when women are perceived to be as competent as men, they are often seen as violating prescriptive gender role norms that require women to be communal. As a result, people, especially males, often dislike highly competent women and reject their contributions. In the section’s second article, Laurie A. Rudman and Peter Glick report on an empirical study that further explores pressures on female job applicants to be both agentic and communal. Results showed that agentic men were considered more socially skilled than agentic women. Moreover, agentic male applicants were considered more hireable than agentic female applicants for jobs requiring both agentic and communal skills. Women who possessed both agentic and communal qualities, however, were considered to be as hireable as their male counterparts, regardless of job requirements. In the third article in this section, Felicia Pratto and Penelope Espinoza discuss the importance of the interaction of race and gender in affecting discrimination in hiring. They report the results of two empirical studies showing that study participants preferred to hire White male job applicants over White female applicants for jobs that enhance group-based hierarchy but did not prefer Black and Hispanic male applicants over Black and Hispanic women for those same jobs. Instead, Blacks and Hispanics were generally more often selected for jobs that attenuated group-based hierarchy than Whites were. Characteristics of Women’s Leadership Leadership has traditionally been construed as a masculine enterprise with special challenges and pitfalls for women. This perception raises the very interesting question of how women lead. The two articles in the issue’s third section discuss current research on gender differences and similarities in the ways men and women perceive themselves as leaders and engage in leadership. In the first of these articles, Alice H. Eagly and Mary C. Johannesen-Schmidt examine the controversy in the popular and academic literatures about whether there are gender differences in leadership style. These authors review the empirical literature on gender differences in leadership style, including recent research on transformational and transactional leadership. They conclude that, although male and female leaders are quite similar in a number of ways, on average they do behave somewhat differently. In the section’s second article, Hilary M. Lips reports an empirical investigation of the ways in which samples of college students from Virginia and Puerto Rico perceive themselves as future leaders. Her findings indicate that both men and women expect to lead in domains that are relatively traditional for their gender— for example, men in business and women in education. Compared with men, women also expect more difficulties in their personal relationships and other negative consequences as a result of their leadership. Strategies for Change The articles in the first three sections of this issue present evidence of gender inequalities in leadership and influence and propose theoretical explanations for these inequalities. This research helps clarify why women are underrepresented in positions of power and provides a framework for identifying possible strategies for reducing gender discrimination. In the final section of this issue, Janice D. Yoder focuses on strategies that can be used to increase women’s emergence and effectiveness as leaders. In particular, she endorses a wide range of organizational strategies for increasing women’s leadership. She also describes individual approaches that women can use to reduce resistance to their leadership but argues that individual approaches, because they demand more of women than men, are inherently unfair. Importance of the Effects of Gender on Hierarchy and Leadership Scholarship on gender has addressed a range of issues in past decades, with early work concentrating on gender stereotypes and sex-differentiated personality traits. An underlying goal of this work was to understand the status of women in society and foster favorable change in women’s status. Although women’s status has risen substantially in the 20th century in many societies, women’s subordination remains apparent in their lack of access to positions of power. Earlier researchers rarely addressed this issue directly. If women are ever to achieve a status equivalent to that of men, however, they will have to participate equally in those contexts where the most important and far-reaching decisions are made. Decision making with major impact on what is valued in societies and how resources are allocated is surely not shared equally by citizens, but concentrated among people who hold positions of power in organizations and governments. Women must be present in sizeable numbers in these settings and must perform effectively in order to produce a balance between male and female power. The research and theory considered in this issue help us understand why power has remained unequally allocated between the sexes and how greater equality can be achieved. References Adler, N. J. (1999). Global leaders: Women of influence. In G. Powell (Ed.), Handbook of gender & work (pp. 239–261). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Catalyst. (2000). Census of women corporate officers and top earners. New York: Catalyst. Center for the American Woman and Politics. (2001). Fact sheet [On-line]. New Brunswick, NJ: Eagleton Institute of Politics, Rutgers University. Available: http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/ ~cawp/pdf/elective.pdf The corporate woman: A special report. (1986, March 24). Wall Street Journal, 32-page supp. Dobbs, M. (1999, May 2). Becoming Madeline Albright. Washington Post Magazine, p. W11. Gallup, G., Jr. (1995). The Gallup poll. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources. Morgan, F. B. (2001). Degrees and other awards conferred by Title IV participating, degree-granting institutions: 1997–98 [On-line]. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Available: http://nces.ed.gov/ pubs2001/quarterly/spring/q5_3.html A practical judicial eye; O’Connor deserves one more first—Ms. Chief Justice. (2000, June 12). The Arizona Republic, p. B6. Ragins, B. R., Townsend, B., & Mattis, M. (1998). Gender gap in the executive suite: CEOs and female executives report on breaking the glass ceiling. Academy of Management Executive, 12, 28–42. Rhode, D. (2001). The unfinished agenda: Women and the legal profession. Chicago: American Bar Association, Commission on Women in the Profession. U.S. Bureau of the Census. (2000). Current population reports: Educational attainment in the United States: March 2000. Table 1: Educational attainment of the population 15 years and over, by age, sex, race, and Hispanic origin [On-line]. Available: http://www.census.gov/population/ socdemo/education/p20-536/tab01.txt U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (1982). Labor force statistics derived from the current population survey: A databook (Vol. 1). Bulletin 2096. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2001a). Annual average tables from the January 2001 issue of Employment and Earnings. Table 11: Employed persons by detailed occupation, sex, race, and Hispanic origin [On-line]. Available: http://www.bls.gov/cpsaatab.htm U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2001b). News: The employment situation: May 2001. Table A-1: Employment status of the civilian population by sex and age [On-line]. Available: http://www. bls.gov/news.release/pdf/empsit.pdf U.S. Department of Defense. (1998). Active duty military personnel by service by rank/grade (for September 30, 1997) [On-line]. Available: http://web1.whs.osd.mil/mmid/military/miltop.htm U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2001). Digest of educational statistics [On-line]. Available: http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2001/digest/index.html